Class 10 · Science

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Spherical Mirrors — Basics

A curved mirror is just a small piece of a sphere — concave curves inward, convex curves outward, and a handful of labelled points describe both.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Image Formation by a Concave Mirror

Move the object closer to a concave mirror and the image flips from real-and-small to virtual-and-huge — exactly at the focus, it disappears.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Image Formation by a Convex Mirror

A convex mirror always gives the same kind of image — small, upright, and behind the mirror — no matter how far away the object is.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Mirror Formula and Magnification

One formula connects object distance, image distance, and focal length for any mirror — as long as you get the plus and minus signs right.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Refraction of Light — Laws & Snell's Law

Light bends when it crosses into a different transparent medium — that's why a straw looks broken in a glass of water.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Refraction Through a Rectangular Glass Slab

Light bends twice going through a glass slab — once in, once out — and the two bends exactly cancel each other's angle, just shifting the ray sideways.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

The Refractive Index

Refractive index is just a number that tells you how much a medium slows light down compared to air — a bigger number means a bigger bend.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Spherical Lenses — Convex & Concave

A convex lens (thick in the middle) pulls light rays together; a concave lens (thin in the middle) spreads them apart.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Image Formation by a Convex Lens

A convex lens behaves a lot like a concave mirror — far objects give small real images, and only up close does it act as a magnifying glass.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Image Formation by a Concave Lens

A concave lens never changes its mind — the image is always virtual, erect, and smaller than the object, wherever you place the object.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Lens Formula and Magnification

The lens formula looks almost like the mirror formula, but with a minus sign — small difference, easy to mix up in exams.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

Power of a Lens

A lens's 'power' is just 1 divided by its focal length in metres — a short focal length means a strong, high-power lens.

Light — Reflection and Refraction

The Human Eye — Structure

Your eye is a camera made of living tissue — here's what each part actually does.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Power of Accommodation

How your eye lens changes shape to focus on things both near and far — and why it has limits.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Myopia (Near-sightedness)

Your eye focuses distant objects in front of the retina instead of on it — so far things blur, near things stay sharp.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness)

Your eye focuses nearby objects behind the retina — so close-up things blur while distant ones stay clear.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Presbyopia

As the eye ages, its power of accommodation fades — many people then need bifocal lenses.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Refraction of Light Through a Prism

Unlike a glass slab, a prism's slanted faces bend light sideways — that sideways bend is the angle of deviation.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Dispersion of White Light — VIBGYOR

White light isn't one colour — a prism splits it into seven, because each colour bends by a different amount.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Twinkling of Stars

Stars twinkle because Earth's shifting atmosphere keeps bending their light by tiny, changing amounts.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Advance Sunrise & Delayed Sunset

You see the sun about 2 minutes before it actually rises, and 2 minutes after it actually sets — atmospheric refraction again.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Scattering of Light — Why the Sky is Blue

Air molecules scatter blue light far more than red light — that scattered blue is what fills the daytime sky.

The Human Eye and the Colourful World